Copied
from: Deanna Sellnow, “Oral Footnotes,” The Process of Public Speaking, pp.
144-146. (Harcourt Press, 1998)
To
be an ethical public speaker, you must also cite references of external
research orally throughout the presentation.
Doing so will enhance your ethos (perceived competence and credibility)
and avoid plagiarism. Beginning public
speakers sometimes have difficulty understanding the reasons for citing
references orally. Consider the fact that no one who hears your presentation
actually sees your outline or your reference list except, perhaps, your
instructor. How will the other
individuals in your audience know where your information comes from unless you
tell them? Because public speaking is an
aural communication event (comprised primarily of speaking and listening), you
must provide your internal references orally as well as within the text and at
the end of the outline. Oral footnotes are internal references to the
original source, cited at the point of presenting the information during the
speech.
To be ethical, oral footnotes should be provided
whenever you include information drawn from another source. Oral footnotes typically provide listeners
with the name and credentials of the author and enough bibliographic
information to allow the listeners to look up the source themselves. This helps ensure that the speaker is not
merely fabricating his or her unsubstantiated opinions. It also lets listeners know that the speaker
is not plagiarizing information. It is not necessary to include page numbers in
an oral footnote. What follows is an abbreviated list of appropriate oral
footnote citation format for the kinds of sources most often cited by public
speaking fundamentals students.
Usually, you need only to identify the last name of
the author and the title of the book. You might include the date of publication
and credentials of the author if doing so will enhance your credibility. Sometimes a date is offered when the book
was published within the last two years. An oral footnote for a book might sound like this:
“In her book, The Process of Public Speaking, Sellnow
argues that oral footnotes are essential because they enhance speaker
credibility.”
Or you might choose to include
the credentials of the author of the book. Then your oral footnote might sound
like this:
In her book, The Process of Public Speaking, Sellnow,
who currently serves as the Director of Public Speaking Fundamentals at
When
citing an oral footnote for a journal or magazine article, you should include
the name and publication date of the publication. You might also include the author of the
article or title of the article, particularly if doing so might enhance your
credibility. An oral footnote for a journal or magazine article might sound
like this:
“Ayres
wrote, in a 1991 article published in Communication
Research Reports, that using visual aids during public speaking
presentations may actually reduce speech anxiety.”
Or:
“According to a May/June article in Health
Magazine entitled ‘Germ Crazy,’ not all antibacterial products actually help
prevent disease. In fact some can even
make the germs more resistant.”
When citing an oral footnote for a newspaper article,
include the name of the newspaper and date of the article. The reputation of the newspaper is more
likely to boost your credibility than is the name of the author. You might include the author of the article
if the author’s credentials may serve to enhance your credibility. An oral footnote for a newspaper article
might sound like this:
“A May 1998 article published in The Forum said
that religious addiction can be as damaging to relationships as drug or alcohol
addiction.”
When citing an oral footnote for an interview,
include the name and credentials of the person interviewed and the date when
the interview took place. If you quote
the interview more than once during the speech, it is only necessary to cite
the name of the person interviewed in subsequent oral footnotes. An oral footnote for an interview might sound
like this:
“In a television interview with Dr. Susan Nissen,
Physician for Physical Medicine at
When citing an oral footnote for a television
program, include the name of the program and the date of the original
broadcast. You may include the reporter
if doing so may serve to enhance your credibility. An oral footnote for a television program
might sound like this:
“As was reported on a May 1995 CNN special
broadcast called ‘Cry Hatred,’ neo-Nazi Skinhead hatecrimes can be linked
directly to the ‘Oi’ music they listen to.”
Internet Documents
When citing an oral footnote for an internet
document, you should include the author and her or his credentials along with
the date of the most recent revision. If
there is not author, include the credentials of the sponsoring organization
along with the date of the most recent revision. Do NOT include the path
as part of your oral footnote. An oral footnote for an internet document might
sound like this:
“
The key to remember when citing oral footnotes is to
include enough information to allow listeners to access that information
themselves and to offer enough credentials to enhance your credibility as a
speaker on the topic. Ethical oral footnotes enhance ethos and avoid
plagiarism.